One of the major divides in the Spanish Civil War was between urban and rural cultures. This divide played out on the battlefield as well, with urban warfare, and particularly bombing of civilian populations, representing a novel aspect of the war. From Guernica to Madrid to Barcelona, discover the lessons from the war's urban battlefields.

Begin with an overview of the history and impact of railways, as a revolutionary technology that produced a superbly efficient means of transport. Grasp how railroads have been central to industrial societies, and have influenced politics, urbanization, social life, modern business, and more. Note the decline of trains in the later 20th century, followed by their astonishing comeback.

With the consideration of the next threshold of complexity, life, we develop a definition of life itself, and begin to consider how life-forms adapt and change over time.

In On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin revealed a new story: an account of how all living species change and adapt. This episode recounts how Darwin arrived at his revolutionary theory, and how he shared his ideas with contemporaries who were making similar breakthroughs.

Delve into the growing political polarization that occurred in Spain's Second Republic era from 1931 to 1936. As power swung back and forth between the left and the right, neither side could gain clear majority support. This polarization, combined with the messy process of reform, transformed Spain into a powder keg.

The Athenian assault on the heavily fortified city of Syracuse in Sicily represents one of the greatest military follies in history. The ensuing disaster was a turning point in the wider Peloponnesian War with Sparta (431 to 404 BCE).

After the failed military coup, the summer of 1936 became the most violent and lawless period of the Spanish Civil War, with Nationalists and Republican coalitions committing atrocities against alleged enemies and civilians alike. From a national terror campaign to the desecration of churches and religious leaders, this time period saw great bloodshed.

Professor Garrett G. Fagan addresses the importance of studying battles and surveys the changing scholarly approach to the subject since the 19th century. He concludes by looking at different definitions of warfare, particularly the "operational" and "social-constructivist" models.

With New Kingdom Egypt, you get the first fully recorded battle in history: the Battle of Megiddo. You also cover the later Battle of Kadesh, which is attested in both Egyptian and Hittite accounts.

Observe how the building of railroads in India, by the British, strengthened British rule and commerce, yet also contributed to Indian nationalism and the movement for independence. Explore British, German, and French colonial railways within Africa and Vietnam, as they served the economic ends of empire. In Canada and Australia, see how railroad-building and nation-building were closely linked.